P1 the Functions of the Main Cell Components of the Body Cell

In this report i will be writing brief description on the functions of the main cell components of the body cell. The cell membrane : is something that lets some things in and some things out of the cell. It is an outer cover for the cell. If the cell membrane was non existences the cell would spill all over the place. Its function is to protect the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell, while keeping other substances out. It is composed of a thin, double-layered sheet of lipids, around the Cell and is a protective membrane layer around every Cell.Nucleus [pic] The nucleus is the control centre of a cell. It contains genetic material such as DNA and controls the cell's growth and reproduction. The nucleus also controls the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins in the cytoplasm. it also involved in cell division and stores all the information that is to be transferred to the next generation Cytoplasm cytoplasm is a homogeneous, which generall y clear jelly-like material that fills cells . The cytoplasm consists of cytosol and the cellular organelles , except the nucleus. The cytoplasm offers support for the cell.It allows the cells organelles to freely move throughout the cell. Movement is sped up in the fluid of the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm can also act as a medium for transport within the cell. Mitochondria: [pic] The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell it provides energy to the cell through respiration. The food that we eat is broken into simpler molecules like carbohydrates, fats and etc in our bodies. These are sent to the mitochondrion where they are further precessed to produce charged molecules that combine with oxygen and produce Adenosine TriPhosphate (ATP) molecules.This entire process is known as oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondria also helps in the building of certain parts of the blood, and hormones like testosterone and estrogen. Smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum :[pic] The smooth ER is a s ystem of internal membrane inside the cell which move proteins and other substance through the cell. Smooth ER has its purpose in the cell. It acts as a storage organelle. It is important in the creation and storage of steroids. It also stores ions in solution that the cell may need at a later time.Steroids are a type of ringed organic molecule used for many purposes in an organism. They are not always about building muscle mass like a weight lifter. The ion storage is important because sometimes a cell needs ions fast. It might not want to search the environment for ions, so it is easier to have them stored in a pack for easy use. Rough ER – looks rough on the surface because it is stubbed with very small organelles called ribosomes. Ribosomes are made of RNA and protein and are the site of protein synthesis. They are very important in the synthesis and packaging of proteins.Some of those proteins might be used in the cell and some are sent out. The ribosomes are attached to the membrane of the ER. As the ribosomes builds the amino acid chain, the chain is pushed into the ER. When the protein is complete, the rough ER pinches off a vesicle. That vesicle, a small membrane bubble, can move to the cell membrane or the Golgi apparatus Golgi apparatus[pic] The function of the Golgi apparatus is to modify, sort, and package proteins and other materials from the endoplasmic reticulum for storage in the cell or secretion outside the cell.Lysosome [pic] Lysosomes are single, membrane-bound sacs that contain digestive enzymes. The digestive enzymes break down all the major classes of macromolecules including proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and nucleic acids. Throughout a cell's lifetime, the lysosomal enzymes digest old organelles to make room for newly formed organelles. The lysosomes allow cells to continually renew themselves and prevent the accumulation of cellular toxins.

Psychosexual theory Essay

Sigmund Freud was born 1856 in Moravian town of Freiburg, and was the oldest of 8 children. Freud was a bright child who had planned to study law, instead attending the medical faculty at University of Vienna. He went on to study and find a cure for troubled adults, where the patient talked through their problems of childhood. The goal of this was to realise emotions that had been trapped in the unconscious mind of the adult. Freud believed that sexual life and early childhood development was a factor in troubled adults in adulthood. This research leads to Freud’s psychosexual theory. ( Thurschwell, 2000). Freud composed the concept that there are three parts that make up personality in the brain. These three parts of personality are Id, Ego and super ego. The Id is the largest portion of the mind and is the only part of personality that is present from birth. ( Berk, 2009). The function of the Id is to satisfy the basic wants and needs. Example, eating, sleeping, drinking. This component is essential in infants to ensure their needs and wants are met. A baby will continuously cry until the demands of the Id are met. However the wants and demands of the Id are not realistic or needed, this is where the Ego takes force. The Ego develops in early infancy and its job is to control and satisfy the Ids impulses so they are realistic in the real world. Between the ages of 3-6 years, the Superego develops. The superego holds what’s right and wrong in, morals and rules that have been learnt from parents and society. To have a good personality structure one most have a good balance between the Id, ego and superego. Id, ego and superego become integrated into Freud’s theory of psychosexual theory. (Louw, 2002). Freud constructed his theory called â€Å"Psychosexual theory, which emphasizes that how parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development.† ( Berk, 2009, pg. 16). Psychosexual theory consisted of 5 stages of development. Oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Oral stage occurs between birth- 1 year in this stage the focus is on the mouth and sucking activities. If the oral needs for sucking are not meet in this stage it could lead to later problems in life, such as thumb sucking, smoking and over eating. Anal stage 1-3 years, toilet training takes place between parent and child. This stage is where children first have an encounter with rules. If to many or to few demands in this stage are made it could lead to orderliness, messiness and disorders in later life. Phallic stage 3- 6 years, focus moves to the genital area. Children start to have desires for the opposite sex parent and move away from the same sex parent. Children then have to learn to suppress these feelings and adopt the same sex parent’s characteristics. If these feelings are not suppressed it could lead to confusion of sexual identity. The superego kicks in, in the phallic stage. Latiency 6-11 years, Children’s sexual instincts aren’t so strong and lean to playing and interacting with same sex. Superego has developed more, morals and social rules are learnt from parents and society. Last stage of development is the Genital stage, which occurs in adolescence, puberty starts to occur and sexual impulses appear again. If a child has developed properly through previous stages it will lead to, marriage, sex and birth. (Louw, 2002). Freud’s psychosexual theory was one of the first theories to research into the relationship between parent and child in early years. Eventually more researchers researched into Freud’s theory, discovering that all Freud’s research was not accurate. Freud’s work has been criticized for, not taking other cultures into consideration, not studying children directly and over use of sexual feelings in development. Like Piagets theory it is hard to use their ideas in learning and development today in New Zealand, as there is a lot of criticism around their work. Research into child development has expanded over the years and information is more accurate and useful. ( Newman & Newman, 2007). Freud and Piaget influenced future theorists into more in-depth research in child development. Both Freud and Piaget used the idea of children’s development being discontinuous and in stages. Piaget focused on sexual drive in young children, Piaget focused on children develop as they adapt to their environment. Both theorists have had criticism surrounded their work which makes it hard to relate their theory’s to learning and development in New Zealand today. (Berk, 2009). Reference List Berk, L. (2009). Child development ( 8th ed). United States, Pearsons Publishing.  Dennis, C., & Mitterer, O.J. (2006) Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind and behaviour. United States, Wadsworth Publishing:  http://www.sparknotes.com

Egoism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Egoism - Essay Example The nurturing that each individual goes through plays a critical role in ethical subjectivism.  Without a doubt, human experiences define the perception of each individuals nurture and nature. In this process, ethical subjectivism is a byproduct of personal experience and holds no a truth since there is no absolute standard. It is evident that experiences define a profound judgment. Ethical subjectivism and minimum concept of morality clash because MCM is purely objective set of standards. MCM emphasizes â€Å"it is the greatest happiness of the greatest amount of right and wrong whereas Ethical subjectivism is purely a perception of one’s view regarding ethics. As mentioned above, self-respect does play a huge role because it diminishes approval of others. This is crucial for development and self-personal growth in my humble opinions because one is not tied to any other perceptions. Ethical egoism  is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. It differs from Kantian ethics because it differs from moral theories that avaries in this ream. It differs from psychological egoism, which claims one must take everything itno account. a. You and your significant other have been together for over a year. Your friends have started to point out that you do everything for this person. In particular, your best friend has pointed out that you no longer hang out with your old friends, you volunteer to do their chores around the house, and pay for many of the dates you go on. Additionally, you have neglected your own apartment and needs for the benefit of your significant other. S/he has asked you to skip work and take him/her to the doctor and run some errands around town. You just started a new job and you are not entirely sure of what the attendance policy is or if you can take off work. Considering all the facts and your history

Response 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Response 2 - Essay Example For this reason, followers of the religion are the least westernized. In addition, Appiah (2006) recognizes the importance of religion is retaining the cultural and social balance. In an example, he cites that the superior nature of man over women is today recognized as a religious teaching. However, this is important in cultural or social setting. However, Appiah is correct to argue against the use of violence to retain social balance or cultural purity. Generally, the article portrays the role of religion as a mandatory way of retaining the purity of cultures and humanity. However, this approach to humanity cannot be effective in the modern humanity. People have the freedom to explore other cultures and social paradigms without being held back by religious customs or untimely religious interpretations. In the response by India Ferguso’s post, I agree with the argument that the religious view of one person should not be universal. This is based on that each religion or person may have different perception of religion, culture and social life. Regardless of the cultural or religious affiliation, a person may always explore culture that they perceive as appropriate for them. However, I disagree with the assumption that westernization has increased the disregard of culture and religion. The western culture is part of the paradigm of a changing world. If people, mostly leaders, enhanced their teaching on religion and tradition the world population would not be easily westernized. Westernization may be a failure on cultures and religion to remain stern and resist being versatile to suit the need and beliefs of every person. For instance, religions like Islam remain less corroded from the fact that they retain the original provisions of the religion regardless of the global

Religions world Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Religions world - Essay Example The perception is likened to a seed that will naturally and inevitable mature to create another fruit. This pattern in inevitable and out of our control. The other perception is based on the general role of karma to influence results and action (Matthews 109). This level covers the entire process karmic action as provided by Buddhist teachers. Under the Buddhism path, genuine and accurate explanation of karmic action is developed. The accuracy of the process is only explained by the assumption that a person’s action shaped the consequences or outcome of the entire process (Matthews 142). In addition, the religious perspective includes the assumption that karma dictate the cycle of rebirth in human beings. In an argument by Matthews Buddhism does view karma and enforced by a supernatural being, but as a natural cycle that must occur regardless of the intent to action by a person (109). For this reason, intent towards an action, either negative, positive or neutral attracts a karmic result. Different from Buddhism the perception of Karma in Jainism includes the assumption that karma is a cause of our actions from the mind, body and soul. Consequently, a person attracts karma when they think negatively about another person. In addition, Matthews asserts that in Jainism good actions are not important if the thoughts of a person are not good (161). The theory also develop the assumption that karma exists in small particles, pudgala, across the universe. The particles ensure that karmas are attracted to the karmic field by vibrations from the mind, soul and body. With no person or being controlling the vice, Jainism believes that every person has a similar potential to attain eternity. However, this can only be achieved if a person tries and attains it by minimizing their karma. The concept of karma in Hinduism is similar to the other religions as it cites the action of a man determines the consequences of the results. However, early

Project Management Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Project Management - Coursework Example It will also correlate the process with necessary stakeholder, risks, and Pestle analysis as strategic tools in understanding the market where the Firm is targeting its business operation. A Gannt Chart is provided to sequentially schedule the desired time frame for Firm’s activities. Introduction There is nothing significant for an organization but to see its operational system working systematically to achieve plans. The Firm needs to adopt a mechanism in hiring employees to safeguard its interest and to ascertain that its human resource will be performing their respective tasks in compliance and in contribution to the achievement to its corporate goals. The management, on the other hand, must provide strategic direction to its employees by comprehensively understanding the risks and developments in the market. Strategic planning will help the company leverage itself from competitors and from the odds of dynamic market. Purpose This paper will explicate the process of recrui ting and selecting employees for a firm to enable enjoyment of optimum performance and achievement of goals. It is also aimed at providing appropriate systematic framework for recruitment strategy to acquire quality workers that could perform tasks and roles (Walter, 2008). Scope The scope of this study is limited only to its application to the firm’s recruitment process for either fix or contractual position. Objective This paper aims to explicate the hiring and selection process as significant in human resource management for the Firm and to correlate the matter to Firm’s performance management using optimized business analyses and strategic management. Recruitment and selection process The recruitment process will include the following steps (Walter, 2008). a. Setting and crafting of hiring and recruitment policy by the human resource department in partnership with the management; b. The management must determine the rationale of the hiring; the job’s purpose , duties, and responsibilities. It must also discuss the relation of the job to the management using job analysis (Gan & Kleiner, 2005). c. determination of positions that will be publicized for hiring; d. Identifying strategic areas where information on hiring are posted, advertised or announced. The posted information must clearly indicate the position available; the requirements needed from applicants; the skills needed; and the exact location of the office (Walter, 2008). e. Set actual date of examination and interview; f. Those who academically or skillfully qualify will be subjected for training and coaching (Guest &Conway, 1997; Harrison, 1997; Salman, Arnesson, & Shukur, 2009). g. Signing of contract for hired employees. This is the logical process about how the recruitment and selection procedures be enforced. The hiring policy will be the legal basis in laying down the contractual relations and the terms of employment. It’s often assumed that this is in consonance t o existing labor policy of the location where business is in operation. The publication or advertisement is the process of popularizing the vacancy to gain attention from possible applicants. The management must have thoroughly evaluated the hiring using job analysis to determine the relation of employee to the management. The examination will test the analytical capacity of the applicants and the interview will also help

Multimedia and Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Multimedia and Design - Essay Example In this "Multimedia and design" essay, the author describes points of view and thoughts about this issue of three different authors. Norman (2004) in his book â€Å"Emotional Design† has given knowledge about the Psychology behind the design whether people think it bad or good. Norman in his book referred to three levels of processing such as visceral level, behavioral level, and reflective level. He justifies that how emotions impact their decisions and design. Visceral design of goods concerns the appearance of things. Materials, sounds, texts and smell are all features, which determine the relationship of consumers with objects. People attract the goods because these look good. Focus in the â€Å"Emotional design† is given to move the thinking from practical to products and services, which are enjoyable and give pleasure and fun to consumers. When Norman speaks on the design, he makes efforts to relate the users’ perception about the performance of objects and does not concern the visual sense of objects. It is also justified that Norman looked on the both sides of the story. Dichotomy approaches of objective and subjective are also focused in the Norman’s work. Norman’ book also concerns the emotional designs. Norman already wrote three books, which support to understand the authors feelings expressed in the current book. The work of the Norman is motivating and influencing in the field of design of objects. However, several shortcomings are also displayed which impact the quality of work. Young ideas are also problematic in reference to the theoretical framework of Norman. For example, Norman defined the positive and negative impacts, which were produced at the visceral level. In the later sections, he contradicted the definition about visceral level and added it two other levels such as behavioral and reflective. Three levels about design of objects demonstrate the overlapping from his discussion and render the precise of categorization in suspect. Instead of the flaws in the â€Å"Emotional Design† a vivid canvas is created that integrates the emotional facets into the field that is dominated by the technical concerns. Both subjective and objective approaches are illustrated through the examples. Innovation arise from the changing business needs and does not involve the emotions. For example, advent of colour TV was the demand and emotional needs of the users in the market 2. THE PHILOSOPHER'S TOOL KIT II (Wittkower) In the book of Wittkower (2008) the most p art concerns the iPod and philosophy as an icon of ePoch. People differed mainly in concepts and theories on philosophy. Main theme of philosophy concerns the personal reflection and respond based on the experience. Core philosophy is thinking of human ability that enables people to invent, understand and respond to the questions. Association between philosophies is increasing in the context of academic learning. The close association between computer engineering and computer science also shapes popular culture. The culture of iPod emerged since 2001. Needs and demand of the people on the design of everything is also revealed. Therefore, this world is also designed in a way that very designed thing can be touched, felt and tasted. Not all the new innovative things are developed at once, but according to requirements and demands. Philosophy refreshes our minds for new things and concepts, and uncertainty about philosophy is most vital considered. Now a day the

Direct-to-Consumer (DTC) marketing of prescription drugs Essay

Direct-to-Consumer (DTC) marketing of prescription drugs - Essay Example The Food and Drug Administration is the organization in charge of regulating the DTC marketing. These advertisements are placed through the television, print media, radio and other mass and social media. Regulatory and ethical concerns regarding these advertisements, mostly with concerns on the degree to which these advertisements may excessively influence the prescriptions based on the consumer demands, when in some case, they may not be obligatory has become a contentious issue. My major intend of writing this article is to talk about the significance the DTC marketing among consumers and physicians. Presently, it is only the United States and New Zealand in the whole world that consent to DTC marketing. Print advertisements were only meant for over the counter medications during the 18th century. These adverts led to people believing in the fact that those products could cure alcohol related diseases, obesity and dyspepsia. In the 19th century, there was little oversight on the efficiency and safety of these drugs by the government. By the time, the 20th century was being ushered in, a lot of new products flooded the American pharmaceutical market, while most of them one could doubt their effectiveness. This led to passing of a Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act in 1938 by the congress that ensured safety of the drugs on the market. Later in 1962, the FDA was granted an additional responsibility of regulating advertising of prescription drugs. Growing concerns about these advertisements led to introduction of S. 1082, the Food and Drug Administration Revitalization Act so as to requ ire a mandatory moratorium on advertising new prescription drugs, a pre-clearance of the DTC advertisements. It also required that certain language be included in these advertisements. These restrictions were removed from the bill due to pressure from the American Advertising Federation (AAF). The AAF contends that these moratoriums would violate the first amendment protection

Nolans The Dark Night Essay Example for Free

Nolans The Dark Night Essay How does Nolans the dark night use MELCS to good effect and what does this indicate regarding the films genre? Are there any social criticisms present? In this essay I will be explaining the way that different techniques are used, and what these show about the Dark Knight. I will be looking throughout the film at how Nolan uses various effects such as, colour, editing, lighting, camera, and sound. And how these things arent really what you might expect for the typical super hero film, but also how he uses them to subtlety criticize human nature. First of all I will talk about the colour used Nolan uses. Throughout the film the colour scheme always seems to be very dark but as well as this the things that are happening usually contrast this. A good example of this is at one point when the Joker is being questioned, all the lights go out and everything is pitch-black except the jokers white face. This is very effective as it really makes the joker stand out and means you can see every little detail of his face and facial expressions but dont know what else is happening in the room. It therefore creates a whole lot of suspense about whats going to happen next and where its going to come from whilst at the same time letting you see every detail of the jokers face and almost making you really understand what hes thinking. Another point in which this contrast is shown is in Bat-mans hide away place. In there the floor is a dark dull grey/black, and the ceiling is all white lights. This is good because it makes the room seem endless and gives anything in it airs of importance and cleanliness like trophy shelves that are lit from above like the room or a dentist. This is good because in the room he keeps all his high-tech gadgets witch seem incredibly expensive and valuable when they are in the room, but then when Bat-man is using them he acts as though they are something that are disposable. Another way Nolan uses colour is in the costumes. The Joker is an especially good example of this as he wears a purple jacket, green hair, Green top, and bright red giant red lips. This shows us a lot about his character for example, purple stands for royalty and the joker becomes almost like a king by making everyone scared of him. Secondly the green stands for jealousy, and the Joker is very good at making people feel jealous and spiteful about other people. As well as maybe feeling slightly jealous at not being normal, and being unhappy himself. Lastly the joker is just completely crazy, and all his colours clashing certainly do emphasize this. Overall it is a brilliant way of showing his character and showing how different he is to everyone. I mean, youd never miss him would you!? On the other hand the dark knight is completely the opposite of the Joker, and their clothing really shows this. As the knight is completely black it seems to show how he represents reality and order, but the joker stands for everything mad and chaotic as that is what he loves. As for the props Nolan uses, really they are quite simple. Even the high-tech gadgets batman uses all seem possible and there are no out of this world, impossible things. I think this is actually quite a good thing, as it means that it makes the whole play seem more realistic, and like something that could actually happen. Therefore it is all scarier in a slightly surreal way. Next I will look at how Nolan uses editing in the film and what effects this creates. When a lot of action is happening at the same time Nolan uses lots of quick shots of the action quickly cutting from one to the other. This is very clever as you think youre just about to find out whats going to happen when it cuts to the next scene which is also really tense and you want to know whats going to happen there but it goes back to the one before. This creates lots of tension in the film and it is a bit like its flashing from scene to scene like your heart beat getting faster and faster. It also gives the sense of chaos and panic and shows you how every thing is happening at the same time. This is good as it makes you realise how hard it must be for the cops and detectives. Another similar thing he does is when two people and talking to each other about something in which one of them might react in a certain way he will keep cutting from one face to the other as you wait for the reaction to happen. This also creates tension and makes you wonder if they will react the way you think their about or not, then when it does its more of a shock. The lighting in the film is another very important element in the film. I have already explained some of it in the colour part. As with the colour most of the film is set in dark, low key lighting, with lots of shadows creating a spooky kind of atmosphere. Once again though like the colour, often he uses contrast. A place where this is very effective is when some people are looking for Bat-man and it is very dark so they all have very bright torches. All you can see is the torch light getting closer and closer towards you but nothing out of the light. This makes it seem very scary as all you can do is wait until he is in the torch light but by that time you know it will already be too late because they are too close. Another scene in witch the lighting used is very effective is in the bank robbery scene. It is once again very dark in the bank, but because this time it is lighter outside, and the room has very big windows, you get some patches of the bank where it is much lighter. This is really good because he then makes it so that when the action happens, it happens in the lighter places. This means you can clearly see what is happening in the light when something happens out of it your attention is not so focused on it so it is a surprise. Also the dim light coming from just the one side of the building creates big long spooky shadows to, witch adds nicely to the tense atmosphere. Nolan also uses camera techniques in an interesting way to create good effects. For example right at the beginning of the play there is an extreme long shot of a sky scraper. This is then slowly zoomed in; right up to one window and into an extreme close-up, then the glass in the window suddenly shatters. Nolan uses this a lot in the film with other things too, like some one face that once zoomed in you see their shocked facial expression. This creates the element of surprise means you know that something is going to happen to do with what they are zooming in on but not what exactly until your right there. It also creates tension on what thats going to be. Another camera technique used is when something is happening the camera circles the action. This happens a lot and is good because it means you can see everything that is happening and all the reactions of people around it. In addition to this it can create serious tension and fear. A great example of this is when the Joker is about to slit the black mans mouth. The camera circles his head so that sometimes you can see his face with the knife in and sometimes just the back of his head and the Jokers facial expression. Every time the camera shows his face you wince and think, Oh no, is it going to happen now whilst I can see it. This happens over and over until eventually he slits his mouth when you can only see the Jokers expression but you know its been done because his face and its kind of a relief because at least you havent have had to watch. Lastly Nolan uses another successful effect by turning the camera around. He does this near the end when the Joker is hanging upside-down off a building. The camera is turned so that you see the Joker as if he was standing upright and it looks very strange as his hair is all over the place and his hand are waving about, but for some reason it kind of fits the Jokers. This is because the Jokers personality is all over and mad and it seems like that is where he belongs, in an upside-down world. Its slightly ironic really. Moreover, it made it seem like the right place, and way for him to die. Another method Nolan uses to brilliant effect is sound, digetic, and non digetic. For instance throughout the film, when ever tension is building up the same music starts. It sets of quietly and slowly, building up, getting faster and louder until the pinnacle of the excitement then stops. This is very effective as it creates the feeling of panic and makes your heart start to race as you know that somethings about to happen. Sometime when this happens the non digetic sound is on its own building up until its apex when a sudden digetic noise will puncture it. This not only makes tension but also shock and fear. A good example of this is at the beginning when a window breaks. This is a great opening scene as the sound and the camera skill create loads of tension and anticipation. Nolan does another very clever thing with the sound at one point. Just after a massive explosion has happened he cuts the sound altogether, and although you can tell that really there would be loads of noise going on its silent. This is because after an incredibly loud explosion you often become deaf for a while. This is a very clever thing to do, and makes you feel like you really are part of the film. Further more without the sound you concentrate more on what you can see and all the facial expressions and whatevers going on around. Another interesting point to think about in the dark knight is weather or not it is a normal film in the super hero genre. There are many things for and against this argument and I will look at them in this paragraph. First of all there is of course the super hero, and super villain, in this case, bat-man and the Joker. Both whom have very typical features of the super-hero genre but also some not so typical ones. To start with I will concentrate on Bat-man. Like most super heroes he is; quite wealthy, but has had a hard background and has had to build up that wealth from not very much. Is young and good looking with lots of strength and high tech gadgets. Has a different identity during the daytime, and fights crime at night, wearing a costume so no one knows who he is. Also, like a lot of super heros e.g. spider man he is based on some sort of animal. Lastly he has a very strong sense of right and wrong, for example his one rule never to kill anyone witch a lot of super heroes seem to have. On the other hand, although he seems to be a reasonably normal super hero, there are some things witch are slightly different. For example, a lot of the public dont particularly like him, at one point they even try to send him to jail. Also unlike most super heroes, he doesnt really have any sub natural powers, he just like a normal human in most ways. Also, a very big twist in the play is when the heroine dies, so like most super heroes bat-man does have heroine who he cant really have yet. But, whereas usually at the end of the play they would get together, In Bat-man, about half way through she dies. Now as for the joker, is a bit different. Although like most super villains he is bad and has had a hard life. His attitude to life and Bat-man is quite different. Unlike most super villains, he does not really seem to hate Bat-man. Instead he sees him as game, and even when he has the chance to kill him says he is too fun to kill. This is very unusual and very different to how the baddy usually feels towards the hero. Furthermore, the reasons for the Joker to do what he does is rather strange too, because most villains do it for money or wealth or power, but the Joker doesnt care about any of this, and just does it for fun. Overall I think that although The Dark Knight isnt exactly what you would expect from a typical super hero movie, all in all its more that than anything else. I think that really Nolan has taken the super hero genre and added aspects from other things like horror to create a very successful, far more adult movie which will appeal to people who love all the super hero kind of movies, but also to those who usually find them a bit too childish and unrealistic.

Person-Centered Therapy Essay Example for Free

Person-Centered Therapy Essay Person-Centered Therapy is a form of psychoanalytical counseling developed in the 1940s by Carl Rogers. The foundation of this form of therapy stemmed from Rogers’ belief that all people have an inherent desire to be good. Every person has a self-concept or an ideal self which represents what type of person they want to be or think they are. However, a person’s self-concept may not be reflected in their real life experiences and this incongruence creates psychological stress. Rogers’ main goal is to allow the client to explore where their incongruences are rooted and have the clients decide for themselves how to change their behaviors to fit their self-concept. Though the client may reflect on past experiences, Person-Centered Therapy focuses on the client’s current feelings and their current perceived self-worth. The ideal end result of this type of therapy is that the client experiences self-actualization through positive self-acceptance and personal growth. In Person-Centered Therapy the relationship between the client and counselor is crucial to eliciting any progress in the client. The counselor must provide an environment in which the client can disclose their deepest feelings comfortably and safely. This establishes trust in the relationship and allows the client to further explore their thoughts. The main components to Rogers’ theory is that the therapist must have unconditional positive regard for the client and must be able to empathize with them genuinely. To do this, the therapist should focus on the client’s positive attributes. Constant positive reinforcement given sincerely makes the client feel secure and supported and they will feel more comfortable speaking about their issues. This increases the likelihood that the client will attempt to make a change in their life. A second key element in Person-Centered Therapy is that it is non-directive therapy. The counselor does not try to direct the client in any part icular direction, but lets the client lead the discussion in their own direction. The counselor must allow the client to do so and encourage them to continue to explore that direction. This way, when the client does decide to make a change in his/her life, it is done on their own terms. That is the most important feature of this type of counseling. In terms of the Helping Skills Model, Person-Centered Therapy focuses primarily on the Exploration Stage. Rogers’ theory is based on the same principles that define the Exploration Stage. The Exploration Stage is a time where the therapist and client develop a rapport and where the therapist really learns about the client’s behavior and personality. The establishment of a trusting relationship between the therapist and client is the goal of the Exploration Stage and is critical for the Person-Centered Therapy theory to be effective. This type of therapy relies heavily on the use of restatements and open-ended questions to encourage the client to open up about their thoughts and emotions. The Exploration Stage and this type of therapy focus on mainly on the clients as they do most of the speaking. Person-Centered Therapy has its strengths and weaknesses/limitations. One important feature of this type of therapy is that the client does not become dependent on the therapist. If the therapy is done correctly, the client will become to realize that he/she is capable of changing his/her life on their own. This type of therapy empowers the client to take control of their issues and solve them independently and in favor of their own desires. Another strength of this type of therapy is that once the client realizes his/her full potential and has gained a high level of self-understanding, the need for therapy is no longer there. They can now go out into the world feeling confident about overcoming any future obstacles. A limitation for this theory of therapy is that it may seem too simple. The theory at its core basically says if someone is in a safe, unprejudiced environment and speak their thoughts to an empathizing person, they will solve their own issues. This means anybody can do this and no real professional is needed. Another limitation is that there is no direction given for clients who cannot come up with their own solutions. This can be very frustrating for both the therapist and client because there is no progress being made. If a client is not capable of realizing his/her own potential and recognize the changes that need to be in their life, there is nothing the counselor can really do without jeopardizing the high level of client autonomy this type of therapy allows. References Hill, C. E. (2009). Helping Skills: Facilitating exploration, insight, and action. (3rd ed.) Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Rogers, C. R. (1992). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 827-832. (Original article published 1957).

Rate In Malaysia From Construction Industry Construction Essay

Rate In Malaysia From Construction Industry Construction Essay In 2009, fatality rate in Malaysia from construction industry is the highest compared to the other industries. Although it decreases in 2010, it still remains as the top industry that contributes the most in terms of fatality. Social Security Organization (SOCSO) has reported that the number of victims in construction industry until September 2012 is the upmost among the others with 48 victims followed by manufacturing with 30 victims. The factors of these occupational accidents are crystal clear. Safety issues are always considered secondary and take a back seat in construction. They do not emphasize on safety because they do not know how high the actual cost of accident is until it occurs. For instance, health and safety laws from the industry are regulated by themselves and that shows many employers gave less priority to the safe workplace concept. A safe workplace should be harmless and accident-free. However, it is not possible for them to follow this exact rule because of profit, cost, time and quality. Not only that, human factors especially poor ergonomics, manual handling of heavy loads, misuse or failure of equipment, exposure to general hazards, and inadequate safety training are all the roots of this accident. The construction industry is a high risk industry because there is a high risk of accident occurrence. The statistics show that accident rate at construction site in Malaysia is still high. Therefore, preventive measures must be taken to prevent any occupational accidents. This includes Cleaner Production (CP) as an initiative whereby it is defined as the continuous application of an integrated preventative environmental strategy to processes, products and services to increase efficiency and reduce risks to humans and the environment. Usually CP is implementing to minimize the rates of waste and emission generation. However, CP also can be used to improve safety and prevent accidents at construction site. Thus, the sole purpose of this research is to study the efficiency of Cleaner Production (CP) options in improving safety level at construction site and minimizing the occupational accident cases. To fit onto the safety purposes for construction industry, CP involves elimination of risky activities, minimized the accidents and improved the safety awareness among construction workers. 2.0 Problem Statement Every year starting from 2009 until October 2012, statistic from SOCSO shows that construction industry in Malaysia is the most dangerous place to work by seeing the number of fatality occurs during that period. To avoid this from continually happen, a method need to be invented to diminish this problem. Implementation of cleaner production concept seems to be reliable and effective in order to solve this problem. For this research, a study will be made to propose cleaner production option for improving safety and minimize accident occurring at construction sites. 3.0 Objectives The objectives of this research are : a) To determine the most frequent accident cases and evaluate risk level of construction activities throughout site visits. b) To propose suitable CP options which can reduce the risk level at construction site. 4.0 Scope of Research High rise building construction site will be choosing as a site visit for data collection. All data that will be evaluated in this report will be obtained from survey form and interview sessions. The main focus for this research is to implement cleaner production option to reduce risk level at construction site. Thus, any conclusion and recommendation that will be made from this research will be based on this two important thing. 5.0 Literature Review 5.1 Construction industry in Malaysia Construction industry is recognized as one of the main contributors for economic growth in Malaysia. Statistic from Department of Statistic (DOS) shows that construction sector in Malaysia posted a double digit growth in 2010 with 11.1% average annual growth of gross output compared to 2005. This growth comes along with the increase of total workforce engaged from 551,755 people in 2005 to 974,488 in 2010. This gives a clear picture of how fast this industry had developed. However, with this positive growth, there are negative feedbacks along with it. In 2010, according to Department of Safety and Health (DOSH), construction industry were in the leading chart of the most industry that contribute to death with 66 numbers of victims, followed by manufacturing industry with 59 victims. The same pattern followed in 2012 as construction industry contributes the most number of victims. Whatever the growth of this sector is, it remains the most dangerous industries to work in. Figure 5.1 : Occupational accidents by sector for the category of death (DOSH, year 2012) 5.2 Hazard at construction sites There are two main category of hazard in construction sites (A Hamid, MZA Majid, B Singh, 2008) : The risk of physical injury or physical injury hazard. Hazard that associated with process of works or equipment used and climatic condition such as scaffolds, power access equipment and manual handling, ladder, roof work, plant and machinery, excavation, etc. Can cause direct injury at site and if severe can cause of death. The risk of ill health or health hazard. Health hazard in construction work may be grouped under chemical, physical and biological hazard. Can be notified after long term of period and shall cause sickness or death after certain period of time. 5.3 Types of accident 5.4 Introducing of cleaner production 5.5 Implement cleaner production option for safety at construction site 5.6 The important of Cleaner production option 6.0 Methodology Data and information were gathered through literature review from various sources which include from journal papers, articles, thesis and website which are listed in the reference. From that study, a design of interview session and questionnaire will be made according to the study. A site visit at construction place will be held for data collection. The data will be analyzed and evaluate using a simple statistical method to show a clear picture of the data( data from survey form). From the analysis, new CP option will be propose to reduce risk level oreliminate the accident. A period of time will be given for the implementation of CP option proposes. The effectiveness of the propose option will be evaluate by comparing frequency of accident occur before the implement of CP option with after the implementation of CP option. Figure : Summary of research methodology 7.0 Work Plan Week No. Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 Site visit data collection 1 week break 2 Data Analysis 3 Propose and Implementation of CP option 4 Data Analysis 6 Final report article writing 8.0 Limitations Cannot cover other place of construction site. So, just restricted only to one high rise building of construction site.

A Rose for Emily By William Faulkner :: essays research papers

Symbolism in A Rose For Emily William Faulkner (1897-1962) was a southern writer; he spent most of his time in Oxford, Mississippi. "A Rose For Emily" was a vehicle for him to write about the South and the old ways of the South. He was a well respected writer. In 1950 he received the Nobel Prize for Literature. faulkner uses symbolism to make his message stronger. Faulkner uses symbolism as a way to repersent the qualities of the character, places and events in his work. Emily came from a well to do family that had alot of history in the town. The Grierson's were so powerful, Emily did not have to pay taxes. The whole townspeople seemed to think taht they were snobby because in Emily's father's eyes, none of the men were quite good enough for Emily. Unfortunately, Emily turned out to be a lonely old woman because of her father's influence. in "A Rose for Emily", Faulkner uses the element of time to enhance details of the setting and vice versa. By avoiding chronological order of events of Miss Emily's life, Faulkner first gives the reader a completed puzzle, and then allows the reader to examine the puzzle piece by piece. By doing so he enhances the story and presents two different perspectives of time held by the characters such as, the world of the present and, the world of tradition and the past-"confusing time with it's mathematical progression...divided from them by the narrow bottleneck of the most recent decade of years"(Faulkner 35-36). Faulkner uses symbolic elements to compare the Grierson house with Emily's life- "lifting its stubborn and coquettish decay above the cotton wagons and the gasoline pumps-an eyesore among eyesores"(Faulkner 29).

Computers in the Classroom :: Education Teaching

Computers in the Classroom Technology is increasingly becoming part of our everyday life. We can think back to a time when we did not even know what a computer was and all we had was the telephone, radio, and television. Now, we cannot go a day without using my computer and the internet to do something that we need to get done. When did it all change? Everything is happening so fast. We remember going to school and all that we were allowed to use was paper and pencil and we are only twenty and twenty-two years old. When we think about how quickly things have changed, we can only image what it’s going to be like for the next generation. Everyday there is something new coming out into the technology market whether it be, an upgrade to a software package or a new model for a computer. We have come to the realization that as soon as we buy a product, such as a new computer or printer that within a month or less, it is essentially out dated. The reason for that is that as soon as the companies such as Hewett Packard put a new product out on the market, they have already begun work on a new model to improve the one that they just put out. Not only have computers become part of everyday life; they have also become an essential part of instruction in the classroom for both teachers and students. Throughout this paper, we will be discussing several different aspects of why computers are important tool in the classroom. The job of a teacher is to engage students in learning. Computers are engaging learning tools because they reinforce the concepts which are being taught in the classroom. In the past ten years from Kindergarten through college, teachers and students have embraced information technology. Eight-five percent of children know more about computers and the Internet then both their parents (http://www.davidpearcesnyder.com/computers_and_classrooms.htm, n.d). When computers are used in an interactive mode it enhances the average young person’s ability to learn. Some examples of inactive mode include video games, educational games, and chat rooms. In addition, CD-ROMs allow students to learn to read faster and retain more information. In high school, three fourths of students prefer researching school assignments on the Internet (http://www.

Ethical Decision Making and Behavior

7 Ethical Decision Making and Behavior As we practice resolving dilemmas we find ethics to be less a goal than a pathway, less a destination than a trip, less an inoculation than a process. —Ethicist Rushworth Kidder WHAT’S AHEAD This chapter surveys the components of ethical behavior—moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character—and introduces systematic approaches to ethical problem solving. We’ll take a look at four decision-making formats: Kidder’s ethical checkpoints, the SAD formula, Nash’s 12 questions, and the case study method.After presenting each approach, I’ll discuss its relative advantages and disadvantages. U nderstanding how we make and follow through on ethical decisions is the first step to making better choices; taking a systematic approach is the second. We’ll explore both of these steps in this chapter. After examining the ethical decision-making process, we’ll see ho w guidelines or formats can guide our ethical deliberations. 235 236——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Components of Moral Action There are a number of models of ethical decision making and action.For example, business ethics educators Charles Powers and David Vogel identify six factors or elements that underlie moral reasoning and behavior and that are particularly relevant in organizational settings. 1 The first is moral imagination, the recognition that even routine choices and relationships have an ethical dimension. The second is moral identification and ordering, which, as the name suggests, refers to the ability to identify important issues, determine priorities, and sort out competing values.The third factor is moral evaluation, or using analytical skills to evaluate options. The fourth element is tolerating moral disagreement and ambiguity, which arises when managers disagree about values and courses of action. The fifth is the ability to integrate m anagerial competence with moral competence. This integration involves anticipating possible ethical dilemmas, leading others in ethical decision making, and making sure any decision becomes part of an organization’s systems and procedures.The sixth and final element is a sense of moral obligation, which serves as a motivating force to engage in moral judgment and to implement decisions. James Rest of the University of Minnesota developed what may be the most widely used model of moral behavior. Rest built his four-component model by working backward. He started with the end product—moral action—and then determined the steps that produce such behavior. He concluded that ethical action is the result of four psychological subprocesses: (1) moral sensitivity (recognition), (2) moral judgment, (3) moral focus (motivation), and (4) moral character. Component 1: Moral Sensitivity (Recognition) Moral sensitivity (recognizing the presence of an ethical issue) is the firs t step in ethical decision making because we can’t solve a moral problem unless we first know that one exists. A great many moral failures stem from ethical insensitivity. The safety committee at Ford Motor decided not to fix the defective gas tank on the Pinto automobile (see Chapter 2) because members saw no problem with saving money rather than human lives.Wal-Mart was slow to respond to concerns raised by employees, labor groups, environmentalists, and others about wage violations, sexual discrimination, poor environmental practices, and other issues. 3 Many students, focused on finishing their degrees, see no problem with cheating. (You can test your ethical sensitivity by completing the â€Å"Self-Assessment: Moral Sensitivity Scenarios. †) According to Rest, problem recognition requires that we consider how our behavior affects others, identify possible courses of action, and determine theCHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——237 consequ ences of each potential strategy. Empathy and perspective skills are essential to this component of moral action. If we understand how others might feel or react, we are more sensitive to potential negative effects of our choices and can better predict the likely outcomes of each option. A number of factors prevent us from recognizing ethical issues. We may not factor ethical considerations into our typical ways of thinking or mental models. We may be reluctant to use moral terminology (values, justice, right, wrong) to describe our decisions because we want to avoid controversy or believe that keeping silent will make us appear strong and capable. 5 We may even deceive ourselves into thinking that we are acting morally when we are clearly not, a process called ethical fading. The moral aspects of a decision fade into the background if we use euphemisms to disguise unethical behavior, numb our consciences through repeated misbehavior, blame others, and claim that only we know the â €Å"truth. 6 Fortunately, we can take steps to enhance our ethical sensitivity (and the sensitivity of our fellow leaders and followers) by doing the following: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Active listening and role playing Imagining other perspectives Stepping back from a situation to determine whether it has moral implications Using moral terminology to discuss problems and issues Avoiding euphemisms Refusing to excuse misbehavior Accepting personal responsibility Practicing humility and openness to other points of viewIn addition to these steps, we can also increase ethical sensitivity by making an issue more salient. The greater the moral intensity of an issue, the more likely it is that decision makers will take note of it and respond ethically. 7 We can build moral intensity by doing the following: †¢ Illustrating that the situation can cause significant harm or benefit to many people (magnitude of consequences) †¢ Establishing tha t there is social consensus or agreement that a behavior is moral or immoral (e. g. legal or illegal, approved or forbidden by a professional association) †¢ Demonstrating probability of effect, that the act will happen and will cause harm or benefit †¢ Showing that the consequences will happen soon (temporal immediacy) †¢ Emphasizing social, psychological, physical, or psychological closeness (proximity) with those affected by our actions †¢ Proving that one person or a group will greatly suffer due to a decision (concentration of effect) 238——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Finally, paying attention to our emotions can be an important clue that we are faced with an ethical dilemma.Moral emotions are part of our makeup as humans. 8 These feelings are triggered even when we do not have a personal stake in an event. For example, we may feel angry when reading about mistreatment of migrant workers or sympathy when we see a picture of a refu gee living in a squalid camp. Moral emotions also encourage us to take action that benefits other people and society as a whole. We might write a letter protesting the poor working conditions of migrant laborers, for instance, or send money to a humanitarian organization working with displaced persons. Anger, disgust, and contempt are other-condemning emotions.They are elicited by unfairness, betrayal, immorality, cruelty, poor performance, and status differences. Anger can motivate us to redress injustices like racism, oppression, and poverty. Disgust encourages us to set up rewards and punishments to deter inappropriate behaviors. Contempt generally causes us to step back from others. Shame, embarrassment, and guilt are self-conscious emotions that encourage us to obey the rules and uphold the social order. These feelings are triggered when we violate norms and social conventions, present the wrong image to others, and fail to live up to moral guidelines.Shame and embarrassment ca n keep us from engaging in further damaging behavior and may drive us to withdraw from social contact. Guilt motivates us to help others and to treat them well. Sympathy and compassion are other-suffering emotions. They are elicited when we perceive suffering or sorrow in our fellow human beings. Such feelings encourage us to comfort, help, and alleviate the pain of others. Gratitude, awe, and elevation are other-praising (positive) emotions that open us up to new opportunities and relationships.They are prompted when someone has done something on our behalf, when we run across moral beauty (acts of charity, loyalty, and self-sacrifice, for example), and when we read or hear about moral exemplars (see Chapter 3). Gratitude motivates us to repay others; awe and elevation encourage us to become better persons and to take steps to help others. In sum, if we experience anger, disgust, guilt, sympathy, or other moral emotions, the chances are good that there is an ethical dimension to th e situation that confronts us. We will need to look further to determine if this is indeed the case.CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——239 SELF-ASSESSMENT MORAL SENSITIVITY SCENARIOS Instructions Read each vignette and consider the following statement: There are very important ethical aspects to this situation. (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) Then briefly explain your rating for each vignette in the space below it. For more information on the ethical issues raised by the scenarios, see Item 1 under â€Å"For Further Exploration, Challenge, and Self-Assessment. † Vignette 1 One of your most important customers, a medical clinic, called yesterday.The clinic had ordered a product 10 days ago (products are normally delivered within 7–10 days), but it had not arrived. Quickly, you traced the order to the shipping office. You asked the shipping clerk about the order, and she said, â€Å"I shipped it 2 days ago! † As you left the shipping office, you glanced at her desk and saw her shipping receipts. You could clearly see that the order was shipped this morning. You called the client back with the news that the product was on its way. As you talked with the client, you learned that the delay of the product had allowed the condition of some patients to worsen quite dramatically. ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Vignette 2 Last Monday, you were sitting at your desk examining a request that a customer had just faxed to you. The customer was proposing a project that would make a tremendous amount of money for your company but had an extremely demanding time schedule.Just as you were about to call the custo mer and accept the project, one of your employees, Phil, knocked on the door. He entered your office, politely placed a letter of resignation on your desk, and told you he was sorry, but in two weeks, he 240——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies would be moving to another state to be closer to his ailing parents. After he left, you thought about the proposed project and determined that even though Phil would be gone, you could still meet all of the customer’s deadlines. You called the customer and accepted the project. ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Vignette 3 Earlier today, a salesman who works in Iowa called you and told you about an experience he had last week. One of his customers placed a small order of about $1,500 worth of product from corporate headquarters.The home office immediately shipped the package through a freight company, and it arrived the next day at the freight company’s warehouse in Iowa. The salesman went to the warehouse just as it was closing and talked to one of the managers. The manager said that everyone had gone home for the day, but he assured him that the package would be delivered directly to his office the next day. The salesman knew that the customer did not need the materials for at least another 3 days, but he didn’t want to wait.He placed a $20 bill on the counter and asked the warehouse manager one last time if there was anything he could do. The manager found the paperwork, got the product from the back of the warehouse, and brought it out to the salesman. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________SOURCE: Reynolds, S. J. (2006). Moral awareness and ethical predispositions: Investigating the role of individual differences in the recognition of moral issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 233–243. Published by the American Psychological Association. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——241 Component 2: Moral Judgment Once an ethical problem is identified, decision makers select a course of action from the options generated in Component 1. In other words, they make judgments about what is the right or wrong thing to do in this situation.Moral judgment has generated more research than the other components of Rest’s model. Investigators have been particularly interested in cognitive moral development, the process by wh ich people develop their moral reasoning abilities over time. Harvard psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg argued that individuals progress through a series of moral stages just as they do physical ones. 9 Each stage is more advanced than the one before. Not only do people engage in more complex reasoning as they progress up the stages, but they also become less self-centered and develop broader definitions of morality.Kohlberg identified three levels of moral development, each divided into two stages. Level I, preconventional thinking, is the most primitive and focuses on consequences. This form of moral reasoning is common among children who choose to obey to avoid punishment (Stage 1) or follow the rules in order to meet their interests (Stage 2). Stage 2 thinkers are interested in getting a fair deal: You help me, and I’ll help you. Conventional thinkers (Level II) look to others for guidance when deciding how to act.Stage 3 people want to live up to the expectations of those t hey respect, such as parents, siblings, and friends, and value concern for others and respect. Stage 4 individuals take a somewhat broader perspective, looking to society as a whole for direction. They believe in following rules at work, for example, and the law. Kohlberg found that most adults are Level II thinkers. Level III, postconceptual or principled reasoning, is the most advanced type of ethical thinking. Stage 5 people are guided by utilitarian principles.They are concerned for the needs of the entire group and want to make sure that rules and laws serve the greatest good for the greatest number. Stage 6 people operate according to internalized, universal principles such as justice, equality, and human dignity. These principles consistently guide their behavior and take precedence over the laws of any particular society. According to Kohlberg, fewer than 20% of American adults ever reach Stage 5, and almost no one reaches Stage 6. Critics take issue with both the philosophi cal foundation of Kohlberg’s model and its reliance on concrete stages of moral development. 0 They contend that Kohlberg based his postconventional stage on Rawls’s justice-asfairness theory and made deontological ethics superior to other ethical approaches. They note that the model applies more to societal issues than to individual ethical decisions. A great many psychologists challenge the notion 242——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies that people go through a rigid or â€Å"hard† series of moral stages, leaving one stage completely behind before moving to the next. They argue instead that a person can engage in many ways of thinking about a problem, regardless of age.Rest (who studied under Kohlberg), Darcia Narvaez, and their colleagues responded to the critics by replacing the hard stages with a staircase of developmental schemas. 11 Schemas are networks of knowledge organized around life events. We use schemas when encountering new s ituations or information. You are able to master information in new classes, for instance, by using strategies you developed in previous courses. According to this â€Å"neoKohlbergian† approach, decision makers develop more sophisticated moral schemas as they develop. The least sophisticated schema is based on personal interest.People at this level are concerned only with what they may gain or lose in an ethical dilemma. No consideration is given to the needs of broader society. Those who reason at the next level, the maintaining norms schema, believe they have a moral obligation to maintain social order. They are concerned with following rules and laws and making sure that regulations apply to everyone. These thinkers believe that there is a clear hierarchy with carefully defined roles (e. g. , bosses–subordinates, teachers–students, officers– enlisted personnel).The postconventional schema is the most advanced level of moral reasoning. Thinking at this level is not limited to one ethical approach, as Kohlberg argued, but encompasses many different philosophical traditions. Postconventional individuals believe that moral obligations are to be based on shared ideals, should not favor some people at the expense of others, and are open to scrutiny (testing and examination). Such thinkers reason like moral philosophers, looking behind societal norms to determine whether they serve moral purposes. Refer to â€Å"Leadership Ethics at the Movies: Michael Clayton† for an example of a leader who shifts to a higher level of moral reasoning. ) Rest developed the Defining Issues Test (DIT) to measure moral development. Subjects taking the DIT (and its successor, the DIT-2) respond to six ethical scenarios and then choose statements that best reflect the reasoning they used to come up with their choices. These statements, which correspond to the three levels of moral reasoning, are then scored. In the best-known dilemma, Heinz’s wife is dying of cancer and needs a drug he cannot afford to buy.He must decide whether to steal the drug to save her life. Hundreds of studies using the DIT reveal that moral reasoning generally increases with age and education. 12 Undergraduate and graduate students benefit from their educational experiences in general and ethical coursework in particular. When education stops, moral development stops. In addition, moral development is a universal concept, crossing cultural boundaries. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——243 Principled leaders can boost the moral judgment of a group by encouraging members to adopt more sophisticated ethical schemas. 3 Models of cognitive development provide important insights into the process of ethical decision making. First, contextual variables play an important role in shaping ethical behavior. Most people look to others as well as to rules and regulations when making ethical determinations. They are more likely to m ake wise moral judgments if coworkers and supervisors encourage and model ethical behavior. As leaders, we need to build ethical environments. (We’ll take a closer look at the formation of ethical groups and organizations in Chapters 8 and 9. ) Second, education fosters moral reasoning.Pursuing a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree can promote your moral development. As part of your education, focus as much attention as you can on ethics (i. e. , take ethics courses, discuss ethical issues in groups and classes, reflect on the ethical challenges you experience in internships). Third, a broader perspective is better. Consider the needs and viewpoints of others outside your immediate group or organization; determine what is good for the local area, the larger society, and the global community. Fourth, moral principles produce superior solutions.The best ethical thinkers base their choices on widely accepted ethical guidelines. Do the same by drawing on import ant ethical approaches such as utilitarianism, the categorical imperative, altruism, communitarianism, and justice-as-fairness theory. LEADERSHIP ETHICS AT THE MOVIES MICHAEL CLAYTON Key Cast Members: George Clooney, Tilda Swinton, Tom Wilkinson, Sydney Pollack Synopsis: George Clooney stars as Michael Clayton, the â€Å"fixer† for a large New York City firm. Clayton takes care of any messes involving clients, like hit-andrun accidents and shoplifting charges.When the firm’s top litigator (played by Wilkinson) begins to work for the other side in a $3 billion lawsuit, Clayton must get him back on his medications and under control. Karen Crowder (Swinton) is chief counsel for the conglomerate being sued for manufacturing a toxic chemical. She decides to permanently silence both the rogue lawyer and Clayton. The fixer, whose life and reputation have been tarnished by a series of poor ethical and business choices, must now decide how to respond to illegal wiretapping and murder. Swinton won a Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her (Continued) 44——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies (Continued) performance as the ambitious attorney who decides that corporate survival takes precedence over human life. Rating: R for language, including sexual dialogue Themes: moral reasoning, the dark side of leadership, corruption, greed, character, deception Discussion Starters 1. What factors motivated Clayton to become a â€Å"fixer† and the conglomerate’s chief counsel to protect her company at any cost? 2. Was it unethical for the law firm’s top litigator to begin to work for the plaintiffs? Why or why not? 3.What accounts for Clayton’s shift to a higher level of moral reasoning? Component 3: Moral Focus (Motivation) After concluding what course of action is best, decision makers must be focused (motivated to follow through) on their choices. Moral values often conflict with other significant values. For instance, a n accounting supervisor who wants to blow the whistle on illegal accounting practices at her firm must balance her desire to do the right thing against her desire to keep her job, provide income for her family, and maintain relationships with her fellow workers.She will report the accounting abuses to outside authorities only if moral considerations take precedence over these competing priorities. Psychologists report that self-interest and hypocrisy undermine moral motivation. 14 Sometimes individuals genuinely want to do the right thing, but their integrity is â€Å"overpowered† when they discover that they will have to pay a personal cost for acting in an ethical manner. Others never intend to follow an ethical course of action but engage in moral hypocrisy instead. These decision makers â€Å"want to appear moral while, if possible, avoiding the cost of actually being moral. 15 In experimental settings, they say that assignments should be distributed fairly but then assi gn themselves the most desirable tasks while giving less desirable chores to others. Both self-interest and hypocrisy encourage leaders to set their moral principles aside. For example, corporate executives may declare that lower-level employees deserve higher wages. However, whether they really want to help workers or CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——245 just want to appear as if they do, these executives are not likely to pay employees more if it means that they will earn less as a result.Rewards play an important role in ethical follow-through. People are more likely to give ethical values top priority when rewarded through raises, promotions, public recognition, and other means for doing so. Conversely, moral motivation drops when the reward system reinforces unethical behavior. 16 Unfortunately, misplaced rewards are all too common, as in the case of electronics retailers who reward employees for selling expensive extended warranties on new product s. Such warranties are generally a bad deal for consumers. Emotions also play a part in moral motivation. 7 As noted earlier, sympathy, disgust, guilt, and other moral emotions prompt us to take action. We can use their motivational force to help us punish wrongdoers, address injustice, provide assistance, and so on. Other researchers report that positive emotions such as joy and happiness make people more optimistic and more likely to live out their moral choices and to help others. Depression, on the other hand, lowers motivation, and jealousy, rage, and envy contribute to lying, revenge, stealing, and other antisocial behaviors.To increase your moral motivation and the moral motivation of followers, seek out and create ethically rewarding environments. Make sure the reward system of an organization supports ethical behavior before joining it as an employee or a volunteer. Try to reduce the costs of behaving morally by instituting policies and procedures that make it easier to rep ort unethical behavior, combat discrimination, and so on. Work to align rewards with desired behavior in your current organization. Be concerned about how goals are reached. If all else fails, reward yourself.Take pride in following through on your choices and on living up to your self-image as a person of integrity. Tap into moral emotions while making a conscious effort to control negative feelings and to put yourself in a positive frame of mind. Component 4: Moral Character Executing the plan of action takes character. Moral agents have to overcome opposition, resist distractions, cope with fatigue, and develop tactics and strategies for reaching their goals. This helps explain why there is only a moderate correlation between moral judgment and moral behavior.Many times deciding does not lead to doing. The positive character traits described in Chapter 3 contribute to ethical follow-through. Courage helps leaders implement their plans despite the risks and costs of doing so while prudence helps them choose the best course of 246——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies action. Integrity encourages leaders to be true to themselves and their choices. Humility forces leaders to address limitations that might prevent them from taking action. Reverence promotes self-sacrifice. Optimism equips leaders to persist in the face of obstacles and difficulties.Compassion and justice focus the attention of leaders on the needs of others rather than on personal priorities. In addition to virtues, other personal characteristics contribute to moral action. 18 Those with a strong will, as well as confidence in themselves and their abilities, are more likely to persist. The same is true for those with an internal locus of control. Internally oriented people (internals) believe that they have control over their lives and can determine what happens to them. Externally oriented people (externals) believe that life events are beyond their control and are the prod uct of fate or luck instead.Because they have personal responsibility for their actions, internals are more motivated to do what is right. Externals are more susceptible to situational pressures and therefore less likely to persist in ethical tasks. Successful implementation also requires competence. For instance, modifying the organizational reward system may entail researching, organizing, arguing, networking, and relationship-building skills. These skills are put to maximum use when actors have an in-depth understanding of the organizational context: important policies, the group’s history and culture, informal leaders, and so on.Following the character-building guidelines presented in Chapter 3 will go a long way to helping you build the virtues you need to put your moral choices into action. You may also want to look at your past performance to see why you succeeded or failed. Believe that you can have an impact. Otherwise, you are probably not going to carry through whe n obstacles surface. Develop your skills so that you can better put your moral choice into action and master the context in which you operate. Decision-Making Formats Decision-making guidelines or formats can help us make better ethical choices.Taking a systematic approach encourages teams and individuals to carefully define the problem, gather information, apply ethical standards and values, identify and evaluate alternative courses of action, and follow through on their choices. They’re also better equipped to defend their decisions. Four ethical decision-making formats are described in the pages to come. All four approaches are useful. You may want to use just one or a combination of all of them. The particular format you use is not as important as using a systematic approach to moral reasoning. You can practice these guidelines by applying them to Case Study 7. and the scenarios described at the end of the chapter. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior—â €”247 You will probably find it difficult at first to follow a format. That’s because using a format takes a significant amount of effort, and we are used to making rapid judgments mentally when faced with ethical choices. 19 Without being conscious of the fact, we quickly invoke decision-making rules we have learned though experience, such as â€Å"it is always good to obey authority† or â€Å"always be as fair as possible. † Or we intuitively come to a rapid decision based on our emotions and cultural background.Often these quick responses are good ones. But not always. There may be times, for instance, when authority needs to be disobeyed or fairness must be set aside for compassion. Our intuitions are wrong when they are based on mistaken cultural beliefs. For example, many Americans used to immediately condemn interracial couples. As time passed, society recognized that this reaction was biased, unfounded, and unjust. I suggest that, when confronted wit h ethical dilemmas like those in Case Study 7. 1, you write down your initial reaction before using a format. Later compare your final decision to your immediate response.Your ultimate conclusion after following a series of steps may be the same as your first judgment. Or you might find that you come to a significantly different decision. In any case, you should be comfortable with your solution because your deliberations were informed both by your preconscious experiences, emotions, and intuitions as well as by your conscious reasoning. 20 CASE STUDY 7. 1 PARKING LOT SHOOTING Over the past year several employees of a national fast-food chain have been shot or injured when intervening in fights or crimes occurring in the restaurant’s parking lots.As a result, corporate headquarters drafted a new policy that forbids workers from leaving the building in such emergencies, instructing them instead to dial 911. Those who violate the policy will immediately be fired. Imagine that y ou are day-shift manager at one of the company’s locations where a shooting has occurred. You call 911 but notice that the victim, who is lying right outside the door, is bleeding profusely. No one else is stepping up to help the injured man. You have first-aid training and believe you can stabilize his condition before the ambulance arrives.The shooter has apparently fled the scene. Would you disobey company policy and help the shooting victim? 248——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Kidder’s Ethical Checkpoints Ethicist Rushworth Kidder suggests that nine steps or checkpoints can help bring order to otherwise confusing ethical issues. 21 1. Recognize that there is a problem. This step is critically important because it forces us to acknowledge that there is an issue that deserves our attention and helps us separate moral questions from disagreements about manners and social conventions.For example, being late for a party may be bad manners and v iolate cultural expectations. However, this act does not translate into a moral problem involving right or wrong. On the other hand, deciding whether to accept a kickback from a supplier is an ethical dilemma. 2. Determine the actor. Once we’ve determined that there is an ethical issue, we then need to decide who is responsible for addressing the problem. I may be concerned that the owner of a local business treats his employees poorly. Nonetheless, unless I work for the company or buy its products, there is little I can do to address this situation. . Gather the relevant facts. Adequate, accurate, and current information is important for making effective decisions of all kinds, including ethical ones. Details do make a difference. In deciding whether it is just to suspend a student for fighting, for instance, a school principal will want to hear from teachers, classmates, and the offender to determine the seriousness of the offense, the student’s reason for fighting, and the outcome of the altercation. The administrator will probably be more lenient if this is the offender’s first offense and he was defending himself. 4.Test for right-versus-wrong issues. A choice is generally a poor one if it gives you a negative, gut-level reaction (the stench test), would make you uncomfortable if it appeared on the front page of tomorrow’s newspaper (the frontpage test), or would violate the moral code of someone that you care a lot about (the Mom test). If your decision violates any of these criteria, you had better reconsider. 5. Test for right-versus-right values. Many ethical dilemmas pit two core values against each other. Determine whether two good or right values are in conflict with one another in this situation.Right-versus-right value clashes include the following: ? Truth telling versus loyalty to others and institutions. Telling the truth may threaten our allegiance to another person or to an organization, such as when leaders and f ollowers are faced with the decision of whether to blow the whistle on organizational misbehavior (see Chapter 5). Kidder believes that truth versus loyalty is the most common type of conflict involving two deeply held values. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——249 ? Personal needs versus the needs of the community.Our desire to serve our immediate group or ourselves can run counter to the needs of the larger group or community. ? Short-term benefits versus long-term negative consequences. Sometimes satisfying the immediate needs of the group (giving a hefty pay raise to employees, for example) can lead to long-term negative consequences (endangering the future of the business). ? Justice versus mercy. Being fair and even-handed may conflict with our desire to show love and compassion. 6. Apply the ethical standards and perspectives. Apply the ethical principle that is most relevant and useful to this specific issue.Is it communitarianism? Utilitarianism? Kant’s categorical imperative? A combination of perspectives? 7. Look for a third way. Sometimes seemingly irreconcilable values can be resolved through compromise or the development of a creative solution. Negotiators often seek a third way to bring competing factions together. Such was the case in the deliberations that produced the Camp David peace accord. Egypt demanded that Israel return land on the West Bank seized in the 1967 War. Israel resisted because it wanted a buffer zone to protect its security.The dispute was settled when Egypt pledged that it would not attack Israel again. Assured of safety, the Israelis agreed to return the territory to Egypt. 22 8. Make the decision. At some point we need to step up and make the decision. This seems a given (after all, the point of the whole process is to reach a conclusion). However, we may be mentally exhausted from wrestling with the problem, get caught up in the act of analysis, or lack the necessary courage to come to a decision. In Kidder’s words, At this point in the process, there’s little to do but decide.That requires moral courage—an attribute essential to leadership and one that, along with reason, distinguishes humanity most sharply from the animal world. Little wonder, then, that the exercise of ethical decision-making is often seen as the highest fulfillment of the human condition. 23 9. Revisit and reflect on the decision. Learn from your choices. Once you’ve moved on to other issues, stop and reflect. What lessons emerged from this case that you can apply to future decisions? What ethical issues did it raise? Balance Sheet Advantages (Pros) †¢ Is thorough †¢ Considers problem ownership 50——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies †¢ Emphasizes the importance of getting the facts straight †¢ Recognizes that dilemmas can involve right–right as well as right–wrong choices †¢ Encourages the search for creat ive solutions †¢ Sees ethical decision making as a learning process Weaknesses (Cons) †¢ It is not easy to determine who has the responsibility for solving a problem †¢ The facts are not always available, or there may not be enough time to gather them †¢ Decisions don’t always lead to action There is a lot to be said for Kidder’s approach to ethical decision making.For one thing, he seems to cover all the bases, beginning with defining the issue all the way through to learning from the situation after the dust has settled. He acknowledges that there are some problems that we can’t do much about and that we need to pay particular attention to gathering as much information as possible. The ethicist recognizes that some decisions involve deciding between two â€Å"goods† and leaves the door open for creative solutions. Making a choice can be an act of courage, as Kidder points out, and we can apply lessons learned in one dilemma to future problems.On the flip side, some of the strengths of Kidder’s model can also be seen as weaknesses. As we’ll see in Chapter 10, determining responsibility or ownership of a problem is getting harder in an increasingly interdependent world. Who is responsible for poor labor conditions in third-world countries, for instance? The manufacturer? The subcontractor? The store that sells the products made in sweatshops? Those who buy the items? Kidder also seems to assume that leaders will have the time to gather necessary information. Unfortunately, in situations like that described in Case Study 7. 1, time is in short supply.Finally, the model seems to equate deciding with doing. As we saw in our earlier discussion of moral action, we can decide on a course of action but not follow through. Kidder is right to say that making ethical choices takes courage. However, it takes even more courage to put the choice into effect. The SAD Formula Media ethicist Louis Alvin Day of Loui siana State University developed the SAD formula in order to build important elements of critical thinking into moral reasoning. Critical thinking is a rational approach to decision making CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——251 that emphasizes careful analysis and evaluation.It begins with an understanding of the subject to be evaluated; moves to identifying the issues, information, and assumptions surrounding the problem; and then concludes with evaluating alternatives and reaching a conclusion. 24 Each stage of the SAD formula—situation definition, analysis of the situation, decision—addresses a component of critical thinking. (See Box 7. 1. ) To demonstrate this model, I’ll use a conflict involving mandatory vaccinations of health care workers. 25 Situation Definition Health care professionals are at risk for contracting infectious diseases and spreading them to their patients.For that reason, the U. S. government determined that h ealth care workers should be one of the first groups to receive flu vaccines such as the one designed to combat the H1N1 (swine flu) virus. Vaccination can reduce the likelihood of catching the flu by 70%–80% and is one of the best ways to prevent a pandemic. However, fewer than half of U. S. health workers get flu shots every year (rates are also low in Great Britain and Hong Kong). Medical personnel who fail to be vaccinated often do so for the same reasons as other Americans.They don’t like shots, it is not convenient to get them, they claim they seldom get sick, or they believe the vaccine makes them ill (though scientists deny that this happens). Health officials have tried a variety of strategies to increase the percentage of doctors and nurses receiving vaccinations, including promotional campaigns and prize drawings. However, these voluntary efforts have fallen short. Concerned about low participation rates, particularly in light of the danger posed by the swin e flu, Hospital Corporation of America, MedStar Health (Maryland), Virginia Mason (Seattle, WA), BJC HealthCare (St.Louis, MO), and the state of New York began mandatory vaccination programs. A number of clinics and doctor’s offices followed suit. Employees were told they would lose their jobs if they did not get the vaccine. Exceptions were made for those likely to have an allergic reaction (eggs are used in the production of the shots) or those with religious objections. Some health care workers and their unions immediately protested the stricter vaccination policies, labeling such programs as intrusive violations of individual rights. Day says that the ethical question to be addressed should be as narrow as possible.In our example, we will seek to answer the following query: Are mandatory flu-vaccination policies for health care workers ethically justified? 252——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies BOX 7. 1 THE MORAL REASONING PROCESS Situation Definiti on Description of facts Identification of principles and values Statement of ethical issue or question Analysis Weighing of competing principles and values Consideration of external factors Examination of duties to various parties Discussion of applicable ethical theories Decision Rendering of moral agent’s decision Defense of that decision based on moral theory SOURCE: From Day.Ethics in Media Communications: Cases and Controversies, 5E. Copyright  © 2006 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission www. cengage. com/permissions. Analysis Evaluation of Values and Principles. Competing principles and values are clearly present in this situation. On the one side, medical administrators and public health officials put a high value on the responsibility of medical personnel to patients and argue that mandatory vaccinations will save lives, particularly those of vulnerable populations like the sick, those with compromised immune systems, pregnant women, the very young, and the elderly.In requiring mandatory vaccinations in New York, the state’s health commissioner asserted: â€Å"The rationale begins with health-care ethics, which is: The patient’s well-being comes ahead of the personal preferences of health-care workers. †26 (The commissioner later rescinded his edict when there was a shortage of the vaccine. ) The chief medical officer of MedStar Health said the decision to require vaccinations â€Å"is all about patient safety. † On the other side of the debate are individuals, employee unions, and groups CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——253 who put their priority on individual rights.They believe that making flu shots a condition of employment takes away the right to make personal medical decisions, and they have concerns about the safety of the vaccines despite the assurances of medical experts. Opponents also worry that mandatory programs will spread from the health ca re sector into other areas of society. Said a representative of an organization wanting to limit government expansion, â€Å"You start with health-care workers but then expand that umbrella to make it mandatory for everybody. It’s all part of an encroachment on our liberties. †27 External Factors.Some influenza strains, like H1N1, pose greater risks than other strains and spread more rapidly, making vaccinations even more important. Medical employees already have to be inoculated for other conditions like mumps, measles, and tuberculosis, and there haven’t been widespread protests about these requirements. In addition, medical personnel have to follow such mandatory safety procedures as washing their hands before surgery. Vaccinations appear to be a safety measure like hand washing. However, past inoculation programs have made some medical professionals skeptical about current efforts.Earlier vaccines did make recipients sore and could cause mild flu-like sympto ms. The H1N1 vaccine seemed to be rushed into production, raising concerns that recipients were serving as â€Å"guinea pigs. † Nurses, doctors, and home health givers, like other Americans, are increasingly worried about substances they put in their bodies. Moral Duties or Loyalties. Professor Day borrows from theologian Ralph Potter for this part of his model. Potter believes we need to take into account important duties or loyalties when making ethical choices. 8 In this case, the following duties have to be kept in mind: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Loyalty to self (individual conscience) Loyalty to patients Loyalty to vulnerable populations Loyalty to fellow employees Loyalty to others in the same profession Loyalty to the public Medical officials seem primarily concerned for patients, vulnerable populations, and the larger community. Low vaccination rates threaten patients and clients and help the virus spread. Health care workers who refuse flu shots also damage the credibility of the medical profession. Why should patients be vaccinated if their doctors and nurses don’t think it is safe 54——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies or necessary to do so? Vaccination objectors are more concerned for their individual rights and, in some cases, their personal safety. They seem to overlook their primary duty, which is to serve their patients. Yet not all appear to be acting out of selfish motives. Some resistors are concerned about setting a precedent that could reduce the rights of their fellow citizens in the years to come. Moral Theories. Each of the ethical perspectives outlined in Chapter 5 can be applied to this dilemma.From a utilitarian perspective, the benefit of protecting personal rights has to be weighed against the dangers of spreading the flu virus. However, the immediate benefits of slowing the virus also need to be weighed against the long-term costs—loss of individual rights and govern ment intrusion. Based on Kant’s categorical imperative, we could ask if we would want everyone to be vaccinated (probably) or if we would want everyone to refuse to be vaccinated (probably not). However, employees who resist the mandatory shots should carry through on their decision regardless of the consequences, such as losing their jobs.Rawls’s theory could be applied to say that required vaccinations are justified because they protect the least advantaged members of society. Communitarianism also seems to support the mandatory vaccination position. Medical leaders put their emphasis on responsibility to patients, vulnerable groups, and the public. Objectors seem to emphasize individual rights rather than duties. Advocates of mandatory vaccinations have a stronger altruistic focus because such efforts are designed to reduce sickness and suffering. Opponents may argue, however, that they are demonstrating concern by protecting the rights of others.Decision Decisions often emerge out of careful definition and analysis of the problem. It may be clear which course of action is best after external constraints, principles, duties, and moral theories are identified and evaluated. In our example, mandatory flu vaccination programs for health care workers appear to be morally justified. Such programs put the needs of others first and reduce suffering and death. They seem consistent with other requirements placed on health care workers and support the patient-focused mission of the medical profession.Health care employees should prevent sickness, not spread it. This option also seems to be best supported by moral theory. Nonetheless, opponents of mandatory vaccination programs are right to point out that we should be cautious about requiring health CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——255 treatments. Just because mandatory influenza vaccinations are justified for health care workers does not mean that we should require all citi zens to be vaccinated (that’s a different question for analysis) or force citizens into other medical treatments. Balance SheetAdvantages (Pros) †¢ Encourages orderly, systematic reasoning †¢ Incorporates situation definition, duties, and moral theories Disadvantages (Cons) †¢ Failure to reach consensus †¢ Limits creativity †¢ Ignores implementation The SAD formula does encourage careful reasoning by building in key elements of the critical thinking process. Following the formula keeps decision makers from reaching hasty decisions. Instead of jumping immediately to solutions, they must carefully identify elements of the situation, examine and evaluate ethical alternatives, and then reach a conclusion.Three elements of the SAD formula are particularly praiseworthy. First, the formula recognizes that the keys to solving a problem often lie in clearly identifying and describing it. Groups are far less likely to go astray when members clearly outline the question they are to answer. Second, Day’s formula highlights duties or loyalties. In the case of vaccinations, prioritizing loyalties is key to supporting or opposing mandatory vaccination programs. Third, the formula incorporates moral theories directly into the decisionmaking process. The strengths of the SAD model must be balanced against some troubling weaknesses.Day implies that a clear choice will emerge after the problem is defined and analyzed. Nevertheless, that may not always be the case. Even in our example, there is room for dispute. While it appears as if mandatory vaccinations are morally justified, those who put a high value on personal freedoms will likely remain unconvinced. They raise valid concerns about the long-term impact of such programs as well. Focusing on a narrowly defined question may exclude creative options and make it hard to apply principles from one decision to other settings. Finally, the formula leaves out the important implementation stage . 56——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Nash’s 12 Questions Ethics consultant Laura Nash offers 12 questions that can help businesses and other groups identify the responsibilities involved in making moral choices. 29 She argues that discussions based on these queries can be useful even if the group doesn’t reach a conclusion. Managers who answer the questions surface ethical concerns that might otherwise remain hidden, identify common moral problems, clarify gaps between stated values and performance, and explore a variety of alternatives. 1. Have you defined the problem accurately?The ethical decision-making process begins with assembling the facts. Determine how many employees will be affected by layoffs, how much the cleanup of toxic materials will cost, or how many people have been injured by faulty products. Finding out the facts can help defuse the emotionalism of some issues (perhaps the damage is not as great as first feared). 2. How wou ld you define the problem if you stood on the other side of the fence? Asking how others might feel forces self-examination. From a company’s point of view, expanding a local plant may make good sense by increasing production and efficiency.Government officials and neighbors might have an entirely different perspective. A larger plant means more workers clogging already overcrowded roads and contributing to urban sprawl. For example, considering the company’s point of view may impact the decision you reach in â€Å"Focus on Follower Ethics: Paying Back Microsoft† on page 258. 3. How did this situation occur in the first place? This question separates the symptoms from the disease. Lying, cheating customers, and strained labor relations are generally symptoms of deeper problems.Firing an employee for unethical behavior is a temporary solution. Probe to discover the underlying causes. For example, many dubious accounting practices are the result of pressure to pro duce high quarterly profits. 4. To whom and to what do you give your loyalties as a person or group and as a member of the organization? As we saw in Chapter 1, conflicts of loyalty are hard to sort through. However, wrestling with the problem of ultimate loyalty (Work group? Family? Self? Corporation? ) can clarify the values operating in an ethical dilemma. 5. What is your intention in making this decision? . How does this intention compare with the likely results? These questions probe both the group’s intentions and the likely products. Honorable motives CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——257 don’t guarantee positive results. Make sure that the outcomes reflect your motivations. 7. Whom could your decision or action injure? Too often groups consider possible injury only after being sued. Try, in advance, to determine harmful consequences. What will happen if customers ignore label warnings and spread your pesticide indiscriminately, for example?Will the guns you manufacture end up in the hands of urban gang members? Based on these determinations, you may decide to abandon your plans to make these items or revise the way they are marketed. 8. Can you engage the affected parties in a discussion of the problem before you make your decision? Talking to affected parties is one way to make sure that you understand how your actions will influence them. Few of us would want other people to decide what’s in our best interest. Yet we often push forward with projects that assume we know what’s in the best interests of others. 9.Are you confident that your position will be as valid over a long period of time as it seems now? Make sure that your choice will stand the test of time. What seem like compelling reasons for a decision may not seem so important months or years later. Consider the U. S. decision to invade Iraq, for instance. American intelligence experts and political leaders tied Saddam Hussein to terror ist groups and claimed that he was hiding weapons of mass destruction. After the invasion, no solid links between Iraqis and international terrorists or weapons of mass destruction were discovered.Our decision to wage this war doesn’t appear as justified now as it did in the months leading up to the conflict. 10. Could you disclose without qualm your decision or action to your boss, your CEO, the board of directors, your family, or society as a whole? No ethical decision is too trivial to escape the disclosure test. If you or your group would not want to disclose this action, then you’d better reevaluate your choice. 11. What is the symbolic potential of your action if understood? Misunderstood? What you intend may not be what the public perceives (see Questions 5 and 6).If your company is a notorious polluter, contributions to local arts groups may be seen as an attempt to divert attention from your firm’s poor environmental record, not as a generous civic gest ure. 12. Under what conditions would you allow exceptions to your stand? Moral consistency is critical, but is there any basis for making an exception? Dorm rules might require that visiting hours end at midnight on weekdays. Yet, as a resident assistant, is there any time when you would be willing to overlook violations? During finals week? On the evening before classes start?When dorm residents and visitors are working on class projects? 258——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Balance Sheet Advantages (Pros) †¢ Highlights the importance of gathering facts †¢ Encourages perspective taking †¢ Forecasts results and consequences over time Disadvantages (Cons) †¢ Is extremely time consuming †¢ May not always reach a conclusion †¢ Ignores implementation Like the ethical checkpoints, the 12 questions highlight the importance of problem identification and information gathering. They go a step further, however, by encouraging us to engage in perspective taking.We need to see the problem from the other party’s point of view, consider the possible injury we might cause, invite others to give us feedback, and consider how our actions will be perceived. We also need to envision results and take a longterm perspective, imagining how our decisions will stand the test of time. Stepping back can keep us from making choices we might regret later. For example, the decision to test nuclear weapons on U. S. soil without warning citizens may have seemed justified to officials waging the Cold War. However, now even the federal government admits that these tests were immoral. NW E FOCUS ON FOLLOWER ETHICS PAYING BACK MICROSOFT? S Software giant Microsoft made an embarrassing error when it engaged in the first widespread layoffs in the firm’s history. Company officials overpaid an average of $4,000–$5,000 to 25 out of the first 1,400 workers it furloughed. After discovering the error, the firm sent a letter ask ing for repayment from the 25 laid-off workers, requesting a check or money order and apologizing for the inconvenience. Contents of the letter soon appeared on the Internet and in the national media. Microsoft officials then backed off their attempts to get the money back.According to a company spokesperson, â€Å"This was a mistake on our part. We should have handled this situation in a more thoughtful manner. We are reaching out to those impacted to relay that we will not seek any payment from CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——259 those individuals. †1 While Microsoft decided to drop the matter because of negative publicity, the fact remains that some employees received more than they were promised. Except for a clerical error, the company did nothing wrong and has a legal right to ask for restitution.One outplacement expert noted that just because Microsoft is a large company doesn’t mean it should have to automatically pay the cost for this mistake. â€Å"What if they’d put an extra three zeros on it? † he wondered. â€Å"Of course they’d expect to get it back. †2 If you were one of the laid-off workers overpaid by Microsoft, would you give the money back? Why or why not? Would your response be different if the amount of the overpayment was much bigger and the company much smaller? Notes 1. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. (2009, February 23). TECHWEB. 2. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. Sources Chan, S. P. 2009, May 6). Microsoft may not be done cutting jobs. The Seattle Times, p. A1. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. (2009, February 23). TECHWEB. I suspect that some groups will be frustrated by the amount of time it takes to answer the 12 questions. Not only is the model detailed, but discussing the problem with affected parties could take a series of meetings over a period of weeks and months. Complex issues such as determining who should clean up riv er pollution involve a variety of constituencies with very different agendas (government agencies, company representatives, citizens’ groups, conservation clubs).Some decision makers may also be put off by the model’s ambiguity. Nash admits that experts may define problems differently, that there may be exceptions to the decision, and that groups may use the procedure and never reach a conclusion. Finally, none of the questions use the ethical standards we identified in Chapter 5 or address the problem of implementing the choice once it is made. The Case Study Method The case study method is widely used for making medical diagnoses. At many hospitals, groups made up of doctors, nurses, and other staff members 260——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies eet regularly to talk about particularly troublesome cases. They may be unable to determine the exact nature of the illness or how to best treat a patient. Many of these deliberations involve ethical is sues such as whether to keep a terminally ill person on life support or how to respond to patients who demand unnecessary tests and procedures. The group solicits a variety of viewpoints and gathers as much information as possible. Members engage in analogical reasoning, comparing the specifics of a particular case with similar cases by describing the patient, her illness, and relationships with her family.Instead of focusing on how universal principles and standards can be applied in this situation, hospital personnel are more concerned with the details of the case itself. Participants balance competing perspectives and values, reach tentative conclusions, and look for similarities between the current case and earlier ones. Medical ethicist and communication scholar David H. Smith argues that the case-based approach is a powerful technique because it is based on narrative or story. 30 When decision makers describe cases, they are telling stories.These narratives say as much about t he storyteller as they do about the reality of the case. â€Å"Facts† are not objective truth but rather are reflections of what the narrator thinks is true and important. Stories knit these perceptions into a coherent whole. When discussing the fate of patients, it is not enough to know medical data. Hospital personnel need to learn about the patient’s history, the costs and benefits of various treatment options, and other factors such as the wishes of relatives and legal issu